The
American Healthcare system, while sophisticated and advanced in many ways, is
far behind that of the world's industrialized countries in one of the most
important indicators of health, the infant mortality rate. According to the
CDC, the United States ranks 30th in the world, falling behind most of Europe
and other nations throughout the Middle East and Asia. (1) When comparing the number of infants born preterm, or before
they have fully developed in the mother's womb, the numbers are even more
alarming. In 2004, 1 in 8 infants in the U.S. were born preterm, compared to 1
in 18 in Ireland and 1 in 16 in France. (1)
And then there are the comparisons of cost.
Similar to many other healthcare financial comparisons, Americans spend
substantially more on all maternal care than other countries. In 2011, the U.S. spent twice as much as the
next most expensive country on the natural delivery of a baby, $15,236 compared
with $8,495 in Switzerland and less than $3,000 in France, Spain, and Germany. (2) When comparing c-sections, performed in
nearly one-third of all U.S. births, the U.S. also spends twice as much as the
rest and nearly seven times that of many European countries. (2, 3) To add to this, the Surgeon General
estimates that each child born preterm comes with a $51,600 price tag, sending
the costs of the failing U.S. maternal care system through the roof. (4)
In
an effort to tackle these exorbitant costs and poor outcomes, various
stakeholders have teamed together, including the Centers for Medicare &
Medicaid, the Health Resources and Services Administration, NIH and other
groups such as the March of Dimes, to form the Strong Start Initiative. The priorities of the effort are two-fold:
A nationwide public and private partnership to spread awareness about the best
practices to reduce preterm birth as well as testing enhanced prenatal care
models to reduce the rate of preterm births for at-risk women. (5) The initiative also intends to decrease the
number of elective preterm births (most commonly through cesarean sections) and
save money for the U.S. health care system. Medicaid pays for almost half of
the nation's births every year, therefore even a 10% reduction in preterm
deliveries would equal $75 million in savings. (6)
This program, however, is simply not enough to change the mindset and habits of
U.S. mothers, physicians and the public.
This paper will analyze why the
American approach to childbirth has spiraled out of control, costing the U.S.
millions of dollars each year and endangering the lives of mothers and
children. Specifically, Social Norms Theory, Self-Efficacy and Role Theory will
be used to understand how women have come to solely rely on physicians and
hospitals in childbirth. It will also explore how Diffusion of Innovations
Theory has caused the U.S. to have the highest rate of c-sections ever reported.
(3) Additionally, these and other
theories will be applied to drive a solution: the use and reimbursement of a
traditional and familiar resource, Certified Midwives. By utilizing the skills
and expertise of Midwifery services, the U.S. Healthcare system can save
millions of dollars and more importantly, countless lives.
Flaw
#1: Social Norms Theory and Self-efficacy have Caused Women to Believe They
Can't Give Birth without a Physician or Outside of a Hospital
Prior to the middle of the 20th Century, the normal custom
for U.S. mothers was to give birth at home, under the care of midwives.
However, as the practice of medical obstetrics grew and hospitals catered their
services to maternal care, the percentage of births taking place in hospitals
steadily increased. In 1940, 56% of U.S. births took place in Hospitals. In
1969, the number was at 99%, where it remains today. (7) Childbirth is now the single most common reason for
hospitalization in the U.S. (8) While
evolving and advancing medical practices can account for some of these changes,
Social Norms Theory explains why the location of birth so drastically changed
over a period of 30 years in the U.S. and remains consistent today.
Social
Norms Theory states that individuals base their actions and behavior in direct
and meaningful ways on perceived social norms. Descriptive norms, in
particular, are those that explain the behavior of the general public and
research has shown that people do not want to deviate from these standards. (9) During the 20th Century, the norms of how
women should be giving birth began to shift. Doctors were at the forefront, no
longer categorizing birth as a normal, natural experience for a woman to go
through, but instead identifying it with illness. Like most other illnesses,
the solution was to deal with childbirth in the hospital setting, under the aid
of a physician. (10) As the medical world
touted their ability to "heal" women from the pain of childbirth, the
perceived norm (which may have been inaccurate at the time but was widely
believed) became to deliver a baby in a hospital. (11) The norm of associating birth with illness even continued
after the baby is born, as women were told to stay in the hospital another
night, made to feel as though they are sick. (12)
As more women adopted a hospital birth, the concept spread across families and
networks, as Mary Nolan wrote, "women still learn about birth and babycare
from their own mothers, from their sisters and other female relatives" (Nolan, 2008) Once physicians and
hospitals identified the necessity of women to give birth in a hospital, this became
the perceived standard for generations to come.
Along
with Social Norms Theory, self-efficacy can be applied to explain why
childbirth in the U.S. is centered on hospitals and physicians. Self-efficacy
refers to individuals' perceptions of the control they have over their
motivations and behaviors, as well as their capabilities to deal with taxing
situations. (13) As Albert Bandura
writes, "people's belief about their capabilities affect what they choose
to do, how much effort they mobilize, [and] how long they will persevere in the
face of difficulties." (13) In the
context of childbirth, women have been made to believe that the process is not
natural and they don't possess the capabilities to safely deliver a baby on
their own. High-tech maternity care has dehumanized childbirth and made women
believe that they must seek medical assistance when in reality, advanced
interventions are costly, dangerous and often unnecessary, particularly for
low-risk births. (14) In public health,
self-efficacy theory is often used to promote good behavior and provide
individuals with the knowledge, as well as the confidence and control, to deal
with challenging personal health situations. (13)
In childbirth, however, self-efficacy has turned against women, making them
believe they don't have the control to choose their method of birth and must
follow the direction of the doctor, even if it goes against their beliefs or
preferences. (12)
Flaw
#2: Through Role Theory, Physicians have emerged as the Dominant Authority in
American Childbirth Practices
In the United States, the birth of children is
overwhelmingly attended by physicians. In 2003, there were approximately 4.1
million births in the U.S. and nearly 3.8 million were attended by physicians. (15) This equates to more than 92% of births, leaving
less than 8% of births attended by alternative providers, like Midwives.
Europe, on the other hand, has midwives in attendance at 75-80% of births. (8) Numerous studies have compared the birth
outcomes of physician-attended births versus certified nurse midwife births and
have found that midwives have equal or lower risks of infant mortality and low
birth weight in their deliveries. Additionally, midwives spend, on average, twice
the amount of time with patients during pregnancy compared to physicians, and
follow a more personalized approach to prenatal care and delivery. (16) Despite this, physicians are consistently
seen as the authority for childbirth in the U.S. for expectant mothers. The
concept of Role Theory can explain this paradox.
Role Theory stipulates that the
knowledge of one's identity or social position can be a powerful indicator of
their behavior. Much of individuals' behavior can be predicted by which
category they fall into in a specific situation, organization or other social
context and this can change if the context changes. While debate has occurred
over whether an individual's role must be real or theoretical to predict
behavior, Role Theory is useful in understanding how power is peacefully
exercised between individuals. (17) Individuals
in high-ranking positions yield power because of the prestige of their
positions and "their considerable access and control over
information." (17) In the context of
childbirth, physicians have utilized the prestige of their position as a doctor
and their control over information to become the dominant authority on how and
where women should deliver babies. As childbirth moved to a medically-dominated
practice, it became the property of male physicians, identifying their roles as
the authority and placing women in the role of workers, yielding power to the
men in control. Childbirth historically occurred between a woman caretaker and
a birthing mother but when medical advances intervened, midwives were deemed by
the medical community as dirty and ignorant, even associated with witchcraft. (18) With this stereotype and an inability to
compete against the perceived expertise of a doctor, midwives lost their role
as the primary birth attendant. Today, gender plays a less significant role in
the authority of childbirth but physicians have retained their power. The
American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists states that "as
physicians, [they] have an obligation to provide families with information
about the risk, benefits…and limitations of…different maternity care
settings" and recommends hospitals as the safest place for labor and
delivery. (19) Despite substantial
research showing the life-saving and cost-cutting benefits of births outside of
a hospital with alternative providers, as well as the favorable experience for
birthing mothers, physicians have utilized their power and prestige to keep the
practice to their advantage.
Flaw
#3: Diffusion of Innovations Theory has inaccurately Glamorized Cesarean Delivery,
despite its Costly Risks and Implications
Cesarean delivery (C-section) is the alternative to
traditional vaginal birth and involves major abdominal surgery, removing the
baby from the mother's uterus through incision. (3)
The World Health Organization recommends that a country's c-section rate should
not be higher than 10-15%. (20) In the
United States, however, the current c-section rate is 32%, or approximately
one-third of all births. (3) While
incidences occur where a c-section is medically necessary, such as when there
is fetal distress, if the baby is positioned in a way that he or she cannot fit
through the mother's pelvis or if there is a risk of the transferring of an
infection such as HIV, the concern, both from a cost and safety perspective, is
the number of elective procedures. (21)
C-sections carry a host of complications for mothers and children when compared
to vaginal birth, including but not limited to: increased risk of hypertension
and respiratory distress syndrome in the newborn, low birth weight and preterm
births for the newborn, rehospitalization for the mother for uterine infection
and wound complications, blood transfusion, and death for the mother or infant.
Additionally, research has shown consistent emotional and psychological effects
of c-sections for the mother including depression, low self-esteem and a
mother's inability to respond to a newborn's needs. (21, 22) Despite the numerous risks, millions of mothers and doctors
in the U.S. elect for c-section procedures when there is no medical need. The
"trend" of c-sections can be explained through Diffusion of
Innovations Theory.
Diffusion
of Innovations Theory has been repeatedly explored in the context of healthcare.
Quite simply, it refers to the adoption of different innovations by individuals
and how these innovations spread through groups and across populations. (23) Everett Rogers states that innovations
must have certain characteristics and go through a process of time to be
adopted. The characteristics of innovations that make them favorable to
individuals to adopt are relative advantage, compatibility, complexity,
trialability and observability. Innovations are first adopted by innovators,
then early adopters, followed by the early and late majority and lastly, the
laggards. (24) Elective c-section has
many perceived characteristics that fit the factors for widespread adoptability
in Diffusion of Innovations Theory and this, coupled with its endorsement by
many celebrities, has made it an attractive option for mothers.
During
the twentieth century, as doctors' confidence in surgery increased and the use
of anesthesia became more common, the purpose of a c-section shifted. While it
had previously only been performed in emergency situations, it was now being
touted as on option before a woman even went into labor. Obstetricians
advertised c-sections as a safe, painless alternative to vaginal childbirth and
even appealed to fathers, as they could be present during a c-section. (25) C-sections became an option that had a
relative advantage and an observability to be safer and easier than the current
practice. As more women heard about this alternative to the traditional
delivery of a baby and had their fears of the pain of childbirth dissipated,
the procedure was adopted by more expectant mothers. Furthermore, women who had
a c-section once were much more likely, both because of medicine and
preference, to have c-sections for future births. (25) Additionally, celebrities, as both innovators and influencers,
have contributed to selling the compatibility of this innovation. Elective
c-sections by celebrities like Beyonce and Posh Spice, commonly known as the
"Posh push", make the concept attractive because women can have
babies at the time that they choose and preserve the shape of their body in the
process. (26)
Physicians, who also benefit from the convenience and increased reimbursement
of these procedures, even reported a surge in elective c-sections following the
news that Posh Spice had three. (27)
Thus, a surgery that started as an emergency alternative to save women's lives
in childbirth quickly spread through Diffusion of Innovations to become the
trendy, easy thing to do, despite its enormous expense and risk.
New
Intervention: Using, Reimbursing and Collaborating with Midwives
With the worst outcomes of all industrialized nations and an
enormously expensive approach, amongst a Healthcare system that already spends
far more than the rest of the world, the need to address the system of maternal
delivery and care in the United States is real. While the Strong Start Initiative acknowledges the need for change, the
program is simply not significant enough to make a real difference. To truly
ensure that American babies are delivered in the safest manner possible, our
system must address the needs of the mother and baby and do so without costly
and unnecessary intervention. Mothers and doctors must turn to a familiar and
underutilized resource, the midwife. A midwife is a health care professional
who can provide medical services to women at any point in their lives, but most
specifically during pregnancy, baby delivery, and following birth. Midwives
most often provide care for uncomplicated pregnancies, but can make referrals
in life threatening situations. (28) Numerous
studies have shown that women "whose pregnancies are managed by midwives
generally receive excellent care with lower rates of costly medical
interventions" and feel much more relaxed and at ease, compared to giving
birth with a physician. (28,12) In order to utilize their services, a program
must be established which aligns Midwives with obgyns, physicians and hospitals
to ensure personalized and complete care for a woman throughout her pregnancy
and birth, as well as an additonal medical resource should anything go wrong. By
reintegrating midwives into the maternal care system in the U.S., women can
feel more empowered with their birth and choose the method that works best for
their situation. Midwives can also
restablish themselves as a voice of authority for childbirth and help lower the
U.S. rate of c-sections, increasing the safety of deliveries in the America and
controlling the vast amount of unncessary spending in our system.
Addressing
Flaw #1: Shifting Social Norms and Utilizing Illusion of Control to Help Women
Regain their Power in Child Delivery
While physicians managed to move the birth movement inside hospital
doors and under their control during the twentieth century, the trend can be
reversed. The norm in many other countries is to deliver babies with the help
of a midwife at various locations, including the home, birthing centers, or
hospitals. In fact, midwives are present to deliver approximately 80% of babies
born in the rest of the world, despite a presence in less than 8% of U.S.
Births. (29, 8) Additionally, their attendance is not related to the economic
state of the country, as midwives are present in much of Europe. (29) Studies
have also shown that many women in America are dissatisfied with current
routine hospital care, feeling that treatment from medical personal is
impersonal and the increasing use of technology is intimidating. (12) Therefore,
a shift in social norms to using midwives would not only be appropriate given
the typical practice in the rest of the world, but also essential to address women's
frustration with the current state.
In
order to encourage and facilitate the use of midwives, partnerships must be
established between midwives and local doctors' offices and hospitals to make
access to midwives easier for women. In many states, midwives are currently not
reimbursed by Medicaid and private insurance to work independently, so
utilizing their services requires out-of-pocket expenses as well as a shift
from a woman's normal doctor. (30) In
many European countries, pregnant women receive a comprehensive package of
services from a general practitioner, obstetrician and midwife. (29) While this
will prove more difficult to achieve in the United States with a disjointed
healthcare system, financial incentives (through shared reimbursement) for all
medical professionals involved can make a program like this feasible. For
physicians, who are already overworked and have little time to dedicate to
personalized care in birth, utilizing midwives would allow them to free their
schedule from low-risk pregnancies and give them more resources to concentrate
on care for women with unique or dangerous pregnancies that need medical
intervention. (16) For many obgyns, years are spent with a woman for her normal
health needs before pregnancy is even a question. Once a patient becomes
pregnant, her needs are much more frequent, time-consuming and costly and
having additional support from another medical professional would be enormously
beneficial. The midwife, who often has a limited scope of practice, would have
access to more women, increasing their ability to perform care and providing
them with the financial ground to expand services. (31) Lastly, the patient, in having options and a multi-level
support system, would feel more cared for throughout the pregnancy and birthing
process and less uncomfortable with forced medical procedures. Insurance
companies would also have an interest in reimbursing a system like this, as
overall reimbursement expenses would significantly drop with midwives providing
care of equal or higher quality with lower costs. (16) As more women were
exposed to this patient-centered and personalized option, the social norms
would shift to make midwives a standardized approach, rather than an anomaly as
they stand today.
In
addition to utilizing midwifery services through a shift in Social Norms, the
program can uitlize the Illusion of Control to emphasize that women should have
a choice in this exceptionally important aspect of their lives. Illusion of
control refers to the tendency of individuals to believe they have some control
or influence over the outcomes of situations, when in reality they actually
have very little. Effective public health campaigns, therefore, should aim to
help the targeted population restore control. Research has shown that while
women value a sense of control over the birth process, most feel that they
often have little information to make decisions and little control over the
steps taken by the medical authority. (16, 32) Midwives, however, "take a
hands-off approach to the management of childbirth… [and] rather than giving a
pregnant woman orders, a midwife seeks to facilitate healthy pregnancies and
deliveries in conjunction with the client." (31) The midwife serves to
work with the pregnant mother to find the method that works best for her,
enabling a personalized approach and restoring control to the woman in labor. Marketing
this program as a means for women to take control back in this vitally
significant process will encourage women to choose a partnered approach with a
midwife.
Addressing
Flaw #2: Reestablishing Midwives as the Birthing Authority
Years of lobbying and education on the part of physicians
and groups advocating for them helped establish physicians as the authority of
birth in the United States. They utilized
their respected positions to take the leading role in this practice and
associated themselves with advances in medicine to make women feel as though
their lives or their babies were in danger without physician assistance. (31) At
the same time, midwives were not unified in their practice and were overtaken
by dominant physicians, losing their credibility to stereotypes and fear. (18) However,
with research showing that midwives have equal if not better outcomes for
childbirth with less cost, midwives can reestablish themselves in a position of
authority over the process, while still respecting the wishes of the expectant
mother. (12, 31) In order to facilitate a partnership with the rest of the
medical community while still maintaining their methods, midwives must have a
national board of certification. The current certification at the state level yields
disparity between standards, but a national board would encourage physicians
and obgyns to treat midwives with the same professional respect as the rest of
the medical community. With this respect, collaboration could be achieved,
similarly to how it's standardized in other countries. (16, 29) A national
board of certification would also unite midwives of all types under one
umbrella. With unified power, they could have the same resources to lobby
legislation that supported their cause and gain accessibility in the public
eye. With rising insurance premiums and escalating costs, Americans continue to
seek out resources to save money on healthcare without compromising quality.
Midwives are a concrete example of a way to cut costs and better outcomes, but
without a unified platform, their message of limited intervention and
patient-centered care is not well-known. Delivering this message with the
understanding and support of the medical community would return midwives to
their rightful place as a trusted authority on childbirth.
Addressing
Flaw #3: Cutting the American Rates of Cesarean Section
Of the numerous problems with the U.S. maternal care system,
the rate of c-sections requires the most urgent attention. At a rate three
times higher than the recommended amount from WHO and a cost of up to $25,000
per procedure, the current American practice of frequent c-sections must be
curtailed. (20, 2) With physicians receiving higher reimbursement and
performing faster deliveries with c-sections, they are not going to be at the
forefront for change. (27) To drive change and make normal, vaginal births
popular again, midwives must lead the way.
With
an established partnership between physicians, obgyns and midwives, midwives
must champion Diffusion of Innovations Theory to make a normal birth preferable
again and spread awareness about the dangers and costs of c-sections. Numerous
studies have shown that regardless of whether the setting is in or out of a
hospital, women who go into labor with a midwife have considerably lower rates
of c-sections compared to going into labor with a physician. (33) This is
because for many perceived reasons for c-sections, midwives take the approach
that problems can be prevented or solved with less intrusive measures. (33)
Serving as an advocate against c-sections, midwives can inform women from the
early stages, or even before the onset of pregnancy, about the risks and costs
of the procedure. Instead of touting the physicians' philosophy that c-sections
are more convenient, safe and painless, midwives can share personal stories
about women they know who've been hospitalized, suffered psychological stress
or even died from a c-section. (21, 22) Diffusion of Innovations Theory can
then be applied to birth with a midwife, stressing the compatibility of this
method, as it can take place wherever the mother chooses, and the relative
advantage for women with shorter recovery rates and more emotionally supportive
experiences compared to a doctor facilitated c-section. (22) As midwives put
more women at ease about a natural childbirth, this preferred method would
continue to spread, as the more women who don't have a c-section in their first
pregnancy, the less likely they will have one for future incidences. (25)
Finally, rather than news reports about celebrities who choose c-sections, the
number of natural childbirths could be restored through celebrities advocating
this method. The same way the popularity of c-sections spread, celebrities can
serve as Influencers and Innovators by returning to this traditional form of
birth and promoting the use of midwives. With Innovators adopting a normal
method of birth and Midwives spreading awareness about the risks of c-sections
as well as the advantages of a natural childbirth, the dangerous and costly
rate of c-sections in the U.S. can be reduced to more manageable levels.
Conclusion
The
growing costs and risks of the current approach to delivering babies in the
United States must change. Social Norms Theory and self-efficacy helped form a
system that associates birth with illness which must be "cured"
through hospitalization and physician directed procedures, and makes women
believe they are incapable of handling childbirth without medical interventions.
U.S. Physicians, despite their lack of personal care to women during pregnancy
and labor and their rising infant mortality rates, have used Role Theory to
emerge as the dominant authority in how childbirth should take place. Finally,
Diffusions of Innovation Theory can help us understand why one in three women
in the U.S., many by their own choice, undergoes a costly and risky c-section,
rather than a natural birth. The system can be saved, though, by channeling the
expertise and practice of midwives to make U.S. maternal care safer for babies
and mothers, as well as provide necessary cost reductions. In countries
throughout Europe and the rest of the world, midwives work in a collaborative
system with other healthcare professionals and hospitals to provide
comprehensive, personalized care to each expectant mother. Forming a program
like this in the U.S., which provides financial incentives to each person
involved, will restore midwives to their rightful place as child delivery
experts, give women the choices and individual attention they need for a birth
with positive outcomes and help significantly lower the excessive rates of
c-section in the United States. Building a system that embraces and utilizes
the skills and practices of Midwives will serve as a significant way to control
costs in the U.S. healthcare system, but more importantly, will save the lives
of countless mothers and babies born each year.
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Labels: Health Care, Maternal and Child Health, Nutrition, Red, Women's Health
